The Cell Theory

There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that could lead to life in an early Earth. One is that they came from meteorites Another is that they were created at deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere; although it is not clear if Earth had such an atmosphere.

There are essentially no experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were. RNA is generally assumed the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions.

Pyrimidine

Pyrimidine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound similar to benzene and pyridine, containing two nitrogen atoms at positions one and three of the six-member ring. Heterocyclic compounds are organic compounds that contain a ring structure containing atoms in addition to carbon such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen as part of the ring.

Pyrimidines is also used in reference to pyrimidine derivatives and structurally related forms. Pyrimidine is very similar to pyridine, but has an extra nitrogen atom. Pyrimidine is isomeric with two other forms of diazine.

Thymine

Thymine (T) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-methyluracil, a pyrimidine nucleobase.

It is actually the first pyrimidine that was successfully purified by scientists from an all natural source in 1893 – 1894. In 1900, the now accepted structure of a thymine molecule was published. Several investigators were then able to confirm the validity of the molecular structure when they synthesized the compound during 1901 to 1910.

Cytosol

The Cytosol or intracellular fluid (cytoplasmic matrix) is the liquid found inside cells. It is separated into compartments by membranes.

The contents of a eukaryotic cell within the cell membrane (excluding the cell nucleus), is referred to as the cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol, while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space. In eukaryotes, while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol, others are contained within organelles.

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is basically the substance that fills the cell. It is a jelly-like material that is eighty percent water and usually clears in color. It is more like a viscous (thick) gel than a watery substance, but it liquefies when shaken or stirred.

Cytoplasm, which can also be referred to as cytosol, means cell substance. This name is very fitting because cytoplasm is the substance of life that serves as a molecular soup in which all of the cell's organelles are suspended and held together by a fatty membrane. The cytoplasm is found inside the cell membrane and the cytoplasmic organelles.

Guanine

Guanine (G) is one of the four main nucleobases found in nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others are adenine, cytosine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). In DNA, guanine pairs with cytosine.

With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a pyrimidine ring system fused with imidazole-conjugated double bonds. Being unsaturated, the bicyclic molecule is flat. The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine.

Cytosine

Cytosine (C) is one of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). It is a pyrimidine derivative; the nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine.

Cytosine was discovered by Albrecht Kossel in 1894 when it was hydrolysed from calf thymus tissues. A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year.

Purine

A purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, consisting of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. Purines, including substituted purines and their tautomers, are the most widely distributed kind of nitrogen-containing heterocycle in nature.

Purines and pyrimidines make up the two groups of nitrogenous bases, including the two groups of nucleotide bases. Two of the four deoxyribonucleotides and two of the four ribonucleotides, the respective building blocks of DNA and RNA, are purines.

Adenine

Adenine (A) is a nucleobase (a purine derivative) with a variety of roles in biochemistry including cellular respiration, in the form of both the energy-rich adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the cofactors nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and protein synthesis, as a chemical component of DNA and RNA. The shape of adenine is complementary to either thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA.

Peptide

Peptide are molecules formed from two or more amino acids. If the number of amino acids is still below 50 molecules called peptide, but if more than 50 molecules called protein.

Amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds. Peptide bond occurs when the nitrogen atom at one amino acid binds to the carboxyl group of another amino acid. Peptides found in every living being and a role in several biochemical activities. Peptides can be enzymes, hormones, antibiotics, and receptors.

HIV AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes Acquired Immunoeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk.

Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. The four major routes of transmission are unsafe sex, contaminated needles, breast milk, and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth (perinatal transmission). Screening of blood products for HIV has largely eliminated transmission through blood transfusions or infected blood products in the developed world.

Ribosome

Ribosome in the form of small organelles between 17-20 μm in diameter composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins. Ribosome’s were present in all living cells. These organelles translating the mRNA to form a polypeptide chain (proteins) using amino acids carried by tRNAs on translational process.

Archaea

Archaea (arkeobakteri) is one of the major divisions of living organisms. Although the exact phylogeny still cannot be ascertained for the collection, this collection, Arkea, Eukaryotes and Bacteria is a class that includes three-domain system.


Similar to bacteria, Archaea lack a nucleus. Therefore Arkea is including Prokaryotes. Initially, archaea are included in the kingdom Monera. Archaea habitat in dirty environments, but the Archaea can be found everywhere.

Archaea and bacteria have generally similar cell structure, but cell composition and organization set the archaea apart. Like bacteria, archaea lack interior membranes and organelles. Like bacteria, archaea cell membranes are usually bounded by a cell wall and they swim using one or more flagella. 

Nucleus

The nucleus is the organelle found in eukaryotic cells. These organelles contain the majority of the genetic material of cells to form long linear DNA molecules that make up the chromosomes along with different kinds of proteins. Genes in chromosomes has shaped the genomes of the cell nucleus.

The main function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of genes and controlling cell activity by managing gene expression. In addition, the nucleus also serves to organize the genes during cell division, producing the mRNA to encode proteins, as a synthesis of ribosome, the site of replication and transcription of DNA, and regulate when and where gene expression must be initiated, executed, and terminated.

Genetic

Genetics is the study of heredity, the process in which a parent passes certain genes onto their children. A person's appearance like height, hair color, skin color, and eye color are determined by genes. 

• Other characteristics affected by heredity like a:
• Likelihood of getting certain diseases
• Mental abilities
• Natural talents

Bacteria

What is Bacteria? Bacteria are a large group of prokaryotic organisms, except Archaea. Bacteria have a very small size (microscopic) and have a big role in life on earth. In the classification bacteria classified in the Divisio schizomycetes.


Several groups of bacteria known as causative infection and disease. While other groups could provide enormous benefits to human life, particularly in food, medicine, and industry.


Bacteria have a simple cell structure: without nucleus (main cell), cell skeleton, and another organelle like a mitochondria and chloroplast. This became a basis different between prokaryote cell and eukaryote cell (more complex cell). 

Cell

What are Cells? Cells are the smallest organizational unit that became the basis of life (in a biological sense). All functions of life are organized and take place inside the cell. Therefore, the cell can function as autonomous as long as all their needs are met. All cellular organisms are divided into two groups, namely organisms prokaryotes and eukaryotes organisms.

Organisms prokaryotes have no nucleus and the internal organization of cells have a relatively more modest. Prokaryotes are divided into two major groups: eubakteria covering almost all types of bacteria, and archaea, the prokaryotes are  very similar to the bacteria and breed in extreme environments like hot springs, acidic or water that contains very high levels of salt . Prokaryotic genomes consist of a single circular chromosome, with no organization of DNA.

Glucose

What is Glucose? Glucose is one of the most important carbohydrate used as a source of energy for animals and plants. Glucose is one of the main results for photosynthesis and respiration early. Natural form (D-glucose) is also called dextrose, especially in the food industry.


Glucose is an aldehyde (contains a group of -CHO). Five carbons and one oxygen’s to form a ring called a "ring piranosa". In this ring, each carbon bonded to the hydroxyl side groups and hydrogen atoms except the fifth, which tied the sixth carbon atom outside the ring, forming a group CH2OH. This ring structure is in equilibrium with a more reactive form.

Hormone

What is a Hormone? Hormones is a chemical substances naturally produced by the body. Once secreted, hormones will be supplied by the blood to various tissue cells and cause certain effects in accordance with their respective functions. Examples of the effect of hormones on the human body:

1. Physical changes are marked by the growth of hair in certain areas and a distinctive body shape in men and women. 
2. Psychological changes: feminine and masculine behavior, sensitivity, mood. 
3. Reproductive System Changes: Maturation of reproductive organs, the production of sexual organs. 

RNA

What is RNA? Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a chain of nucleotides present in the cells of all life. RNA has a number of important functions for living organisms, ranging from the regulation of gene expression to assistance with copying genes. Severo Ochoa, Robert Holley, and Carl Woese all played critical roles in discovering RNA and understanding how it worked, and more research on RNA is constantly being performed.

Many people are familiar with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a nucleic acid which is often referred to as the “building blocks of life” because it contains the genetic material for its parent organism. RNA is equally important, even if it is lesser known, because RNA plays a critical role in helping DNA to copy and express genes, and to transport genetic material around in the cell. RNA also has a number of independent functions which are no less important.

Viruses

A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Most viruses are too small to be seen directly with a light microscope. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and Archaea.

Although there are millions of different types. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most abundant type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a sub-speciality of microbiology.

Virus particles (known as virions) consist of two or three parts: the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; a protein coat that protects these genes; and in some cases an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat when they are outside a cell. The shapes of viruses range from simple helical and icosahedral forms to more complex structures. The average virus is about one one-hundredth the size of the average bacterium.

Chromosome

What are Chromosome? Chromosomes is vary widely between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 100,000 to 10,000,000,000 nucleotides in a long chain.

In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be replicated, divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny.

What is Protein

What is Protein? Proteins is a complex organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and contain sulfur and phosphor. Proteins have a main function in structure and cell function all organism and virus. 


Protein in food which consume human will absorb by intestine in the form amino acid. Sometime amino acid which is peptide and small molecule will absorb through the intestinal wall and absorb into the blood vessels. This is what caused allergic reaction in body that arise in people which consume foods that contain protein like a milk, fish, shrimp, egg, etc. 

Prokaryote

Prokaryote is a most organism in earth, they are the first form of life. Prokaryote is a unicellular organism and haven’t nucleus membrane. Prokaryote has evolved into several forms and now be a part of every life in earth. They found in the bottom of ocean 9,6 km under water and in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Not like a many organism, prokaryote have a little different morphology which can be used to classify, prokaryote haven’t variation size and form. Traditionally prokaryotes can classification based structure, physiology, and composition molecular.

Eukaryotic

Eukaryote is a group that has cells with membrane surrounded compartments including the nucleus, and organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts and others. Animals, plants, fungi and protozoa is an example of the eukaryotes.

The human genome is a good model for eukaryotic genomes. Nucleate eukaryotic genomes have linear DNA molecules contained in the chromosomes. All eukaryotic genomes also have a smaller circular is the mitochondrial genome. In plants, there are other genomes of the chloroplast genome.

What is Gene

What is Gene? Genes are the units of heredity of living organisms. Physical form is a DNA sequence that becomes the password of a protein, polypeptide, or a strand of RNA that has a function to organisms that possess it.


Genes inherited by an individual to the offspring through a process of reproduction, together with DNA that carries it. Thus, information that maintains the integrity of form and function of an organism's life can be maintained.


In Eukaryote, gene structure consists of:  

• Regulatory domains of transcription initiation, consisting among others of: chain  GCCACACCC, ATGCAAAT, GC box, CCAAT box and  TATA box.
• Intron
• Ekson, is an codification area of protein that can be transcribed in overlapping or non overlapping. 
• End regulation domain transcription 

Hyper Human Mutation

Each human walking this planet receives approximately 60 new mutations in our genome from our parents, according to the first-ever direct measure of new mutations coming from mother and father in whole human genomes.

New mutations are the ultimate source from which new variation is drawn. But finding new mutations is extremely technically challenging as, on average, only 1 in every 100 million letters of DNA is altered each generation. Previous measures of the mutation rate in humans has either averaged across both sexes or measured over several generations. There has been no measure of the new mutations passed from a specific parent to a child among multiple individuals or families.