Down Syndrome

Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. It is named after John Langdon Down, the British physician who described the syndrome in 1866. The condition was clinically described earlier in the 19th century by Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol in 1838 and Edouard Seguin in 1844.

The effects and extent of the extra copy vary greatly among people, depending on genetic history, and pure chance. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 733 births, although it is statistically more common with older parents (both mothers and fathers) due to increased mutagenic exposures upon some older parents reproductive cells. Down syndrome occurs in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species such as chimpanzees and mice.

Transfection

Transfection is the process of deliberately introducing nucleic acids into cells. The term is used notably for non-viral methods in eukaryotic cells. It may also refer to other methods and cell types, although other terms are preferred: "transformation" is more often used to describe non-viral DNA transfer in bacteria, non-animal eukaryotic cells and plant cells.

Genetic material (such as supercoiled plasmid DNA or siRNA constructs), or even proteins such as antibodies, may be transfected.

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is a biological mechanism which is one type of programmed cell death. Apoptosis is used by multicellular organisms to remove cells that are not needed by the body.

Apoptosis is different from necrosis. Apoptosis is generally lasts a lifetime and be beneficial for the body, while necrosis is cell death caused by cellular damage acutely.

A concrete example of the advantages is the separation finger apoptosis in embryos. Apoptosis experienced by the cells located between each finger causes the finger to be separated from each other. When cells lose the ability to perform the apoptotic cells can divide indefinitely and eventually become a cancer.

Type of Mutation

Mutations are changes that occur in genetic material (DNA or RNA), both at the level of gene sequences (point mutations) or at the level of chromosomes. Mutations at the chromosomal level are usually called aberration. Mutations in the gene may lead to the emergence of new alleles and the basis for the emergence of new variations on the species.

Several examples of mutations:
Somatic mutations are mutations in somatic cells, such as skin cells. These mutations are not inherited in the offspring. Gamete mutations are mutations that occur in gamete cells, such as cells of the reproductive organs including sperm and ovum in humans. Because of the gamete cells, it will be passed on to offspring.

Leukemia

Leukemia known as blood cancer is a disease in the classification of cancer (neoplasm) in the blood or bone marrow characterized by the abnormal multiplication or malignant transformation of blood-forming cells in bone marrow and lymphoid tissue, commonly occurs in leukocytes (white blood cells).

Normal cells in the bone marrow are replaced by abnormal cells. These abnormal cells out of the marrow and can be found in the peripheral blood. Leukemic cells affecting hematopoietic or blood cell formation process and the immunity of the patient.

Hemophilia

Hemophilia is a genetic blood disorder caused by a deficiency of blood clotting factors. Hemophilia A occurs if there are abnormalities in the gene that causes a lack of clotting factor VIII (FVIII). Hemophilia B lack of clotting factor IX (FIX). Hemophilia A and B cannot be distinguished because it has a similar clinical appearance and a similar pattern of gene inheritance.

Hemophilia is a genetic disease of the oldest ever recorded. Inherited bleeding disorder that occurs in a male was recorded in file Talmud in the Second Century. Modern history of hemophilia began in 1803 by John Otto was there a child who suffered from hemophilia.

Blood

Blood is the fluid have function sends substances and oxygen needed by body tissues, carrying chemical products of metabolism, as well as the body's defense against viruses or bacteria.

In insects, blood (hemolimfe) is not involved in the circulation of oxygen. Oxygen is circulated through the insect tracheal system of ducts that channel air directly to body tissues. Insect blood transports substances to the body tissues and remove metabolic waste products. In other animals, the main function of blood is to transport oxygen from the lungs or gills to body tissues.

DNA Function

DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes.

Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides.

Catalyst

The catalyst is a substance that accelerates the reaction rate of chemical reactions at certain temperatures, without alteration or use by the reaction itself. Catalysts play a role in the reaction but not as a reactant or product.


The catalyst allows the reaction go faster or allow reaction at lower temperatures due to the changes triggered against reagent. The catalyst provides a path option with lower activation energy. Catalysts reduce the energy required for the course of the reaction.